Etruscan Splendors from Volterra in Tuscany

L'OMBRA DELLA SERA
Etruscan Splendors from Volterra in Tuscany
A Two-THOUSAND-YEAR-OLD INQUIRY: ETRURIA

The First Great Civilization of Ancient Italy
In America, we look back on the 20th century with pride in its vast accomplishments-its technological and sociopolitical leaps-and we think that there has never been a time of such monumental change-and, if pressed to find a parallel, it certainly would not be in what is modern-day central Italy over 2,500 years ago, in a region later called Etruria.
But here, in the 9th century B.C., centers of culture sprang up where none had been before. A collection of huts-ancient villages-became cities; foreign trade intensified; the science of mining was developed, and iron was discovered. Essential and profound changes were taking place in the nature of human settlement: The Iron Age had begun.
Slowly the backwater of Etruria was transformed into a high and wealthy civilization complete with great buildings, sophisticated and varied works of art, and goods imported from other lands. Reading and writing coalesced. Its people held dominion over the seas, rivaling Greece and Carthage. Within two centuries, Etruscan city-states were at the height of their power. Although not a nation per se, their assemblage was the first known confederation in Western history.

Both Old and New: Etruscan Art
Within their rapid ascent and decline (Etruria was subsumed within the Roman Empire by 100 B.C.), a form of art arose distinctive to this region. In fact, most of what is known of the culture has been learned through the study of its art and artifacts, not its elusive language. These artworks have primarily come from the excavation of necropoleis ("cities of the dead," highly elaborate burial grounds).
Not slavishly imitative of Greek art, Etruscan art is unique. In it, periods are not very easily identified, and a uniformity of development is sometimes not apparent. It possesses certain characteristics unknown in other works of art of the classical age. In the light of what is known of Etruscan history, its art can be seen as the reflection of an exuberant yet refined culture, one flexible and welcoming of the new and exotic and open to the idea of art as a form of self-expression.
Perhaps Etruscan art can be viewed as classical "outsider" art, fusing many ancient Mediterranean influences to create a unique form. Although the Etruscans imitated the Greeks in their choice of subjects and to some extent adopted the Hellenistic style, they ignored classical conventions when they created portraits and distorted the proportions of the human body.
The sophisticated, eclectic virtuosity of this art has fascinated (and influenced) many modern artists. These contemporary enthusiasts have seen in Etruria's ancient objects examples of modern artistic movements. This tendency (the collision of two vastly different worlds) has sometimes worked to the detriment of understanding the ancient forms. Nonetheless, we cannot quite ignore our conflicting responses of recognition and enigmatic awe in its presence.

OMBRA DELLA SERA
Discovered during the earliest excavations of the Volterran area and first documented in 1737, Ombra della Sera has long been veiled in mystery-mystery nurtured by the figure's strikingly modern appearance, by the number of legends surrounding its legacy, and by its romantic title.
The title, possibly created by the modern Italian poet Gabriele D'Annunzio, translates into "Shadow of the Night" and refers to the dramatic shadow that this elongated figure casts at twilight. Originally thought to represent a deity, recent scholarship suggests that Ombra della Sera is more likely to be a votive figure. Offered to deities in gratitude or devotion, Etruscan votive figures may represent the image of their donor.
Created in a period when Etruria was influenced by the Hellenistic style, the figure presents an elongated form characteristic of local Etruscan-Italic tradition. Thus, Ombra della Sera can be interpreted as the expression of a local creative, anticlassical spirit that coexisted with Hellenistic influences and also merged with Roman formal artistic expressions.

FUNERARY URNS
Between the 4th and the 1st centuries B.C., Volterran workshops became famous for their elaborately carved alabaster funerary urns. The greatest and most splendid examples of this craft date to the 2nd century B.C., a time when Etruria was permeated by Hellenistic culture (which originated at the court of the successors of Alexander the Great in Asia Minor and Egypt). Ironically, this infusion led not to artistic stagnation but to the flourishing of an art uniquely Etruscan, a forebear to later Roman artistic developments.
The urns display a certain Greek influence in their subject and the style of the relief sculpture on their bases. However, the Etruscans introduced modifications to their Hellenistic models that resulted in highly individualistic and indigenous artworks. Their vivid images clearly intend to be portraits of the deceased, whose ashes the urns contain. But evidence points to their not being "true" portraits, rather standardized models, superficially modified to suggest the physical identity of the deceased. In some cases, there is no correlation between the actual age of the deceased (inscribed on the urn itself) and the apparent "age" of the reproduced figure.
With an influx of Greek artisans during the middle of the 2nd century B.C., late Hellenistic classicism became the style of the Volterran urns. This development is characterized by reclining figures with elongated oval faces, thick lips, wide noses, and deep-set eyes. The hairstyle of the male figures is simple, marked by a few strands on the forehead and adorned with a diadem. The predecessor for this representation is found in the portraits of the princes of Pergamum.

THE TOMB OF THE WARRIOR
On June 12, 1996, at Poggio alle Croci, a low hillsite on the southeast side of Volterra, Italy, an ancient warrior's tomb was accidentally uncovered. An important find? Yes, but it was not a unique event. Poggio alle Croci has been the site of other historically significant Etruscan and Roman finds. In the first half of the 20th century, many tombs were discovered there, in an area overlooking the slope of the Ulimeto necropolis ("city of the dead"). Although only a few items were recovered from this recent site, the examination of the tomb and its treasures has enriched scholars' knowledge of Etruscan society.
Scientists and archeologists established that this most recent burial site belongs to a male, identified as a warrior by the presence of the lance, javelin, and horse's bit. This warrior was certainly a knight of high social rank, as shown by his crested helmet-a magnificent symbol of Villanovan culture and the only such helmet yet to be uncovered in Volterra. Other items distinguishing him as a member of an "aristocracy" are the double flask, goblet, and patera-all bronze banquet accessories and rare luxury goods. These items have been dated to the early Iron Age (late 8th century B.C.). The type of burial is uncertain in this case but is believed to have been cremation, with the helmet serving as a lid for the urn.
Apart from its unique contents and qualities, the Tomb of the Warrior has provided evidence to support some notable general conclusions. It suggests that a main burial site in Volterra like Poggio alle Croci-essentially identified as dating to the Hellenistic period-has an archaic precedent. It also confirms that this Etruscan city was formed during the Iron Age by the unification of village communities at the top of a hill (an obvious defensive strategy). In addition, the homogenous quality of the burial furnishings-as compared with burial sites in other parts of Etruria-strengthens the notion that there was cultural and commercial exchange between the north and the south in the latter part of the early Iron Age. In fact, the crested helmet in this exhibition is thought to have been imported from Tarquinia, one of the largest cities of southern Etruria.

Sidney Mishkin Gallery / Baruch College October 1998

L'OMBRA DELLA SERA Etruscan Splendors from Volterra in Tuscany A Two-THOUSAND-YEAR-OLD INQUIRY: ETRURIA
The First Great Civilization of Ancient Italy In America, we look back on the 20th century with pride in its vast accomplishments-its technological and sociopolitical leaps-and we think that there has never been a time of such monumental change-and, if pressed to find a parallel, it certainly would not be in what is modern-day central Italy over 2,500 years ago, in a region later called Etruria. But here, in the 9th century B.C., centers of culture sprang up where none had been before. A collection of huts-ancient villages-became cities; foreign trade intensified; the science of mining was developed, and iron was discovered. Essential and profound changes were taking place in the nature of human settlement: The Iron Age had begun. Slowly the backwater of Etruria was transformed into a high and wealthy civilization complete with great buildings, sophisticated and varied works of art, and goods imported from other lands. Reading and writing coalesced. Its people held dominion over the seas, rivaling Greece and Carthage. Within two centuries, Etruscan city-states were at the height of their power. Although not a nation per se, their assemblage was the first known confederation in Western history.
Both Old and New: Etruscan Art Within their rapid ascent and decline (Etruria was subsumed within the Roman Empire by 100 B.C.), a form of art arose distinctive to this region. In fact, most of what is known of the culture has been learned through the study of its art and artifacts, not its elusive language. These artworks have primarily come from the excavation of necropoleis ("cities of the dead," highly elaborate burial grounds). Not slavishly imitative of Greek art, Etruscan art is unique. In it, periods are not very easily identified, and a uniformity of development is sometimes not apparent. It possesses certain characteristics unknown in other works of art of the classical age. In the light of what is known of Etruscan history, its art can be seen as the reflection of an exuberant yet refined culture, one flexible and welcoming of the new and exotic and open to the idea of art as a form of self-expression. Perhaps Etruscan art can be viewed as classical "outsider" art, fusing many ancient Mediterranean influences to create a unique form. Although the Etruscans imitated the Greeks in their choice of subjects and to some extent adopted the Hellenistic style, they ignored classical conventions when they created portraits and distorted the proportions of the human body. The sophisticated, eclectic virtuosity of this art has fascinated (and influenced) many modern artists. These contemporary enthusiasts have seen in Etruria's ancient objects examples of modern artistic movements. This tendency (the collision of two vastly different worlds) has sometimes worked to the detriment of understanding the ancient forms. Nonetheless, we cannot quite ignore our conflicting responses of recognition and enigmatic awe in its presence. OMBRA DELLA SERA Discovered during the earliest excavations of the Volterran area and first documented in 1737, Ombra della Sera has long been veiled in mystery-mystery nurtured by the figure's strikingly modern appearance, by the number of legends surrounding its legacy, and by its romantic title. The title, possibly created by the modern Italian poet Gabriele D'Annunzio, translates into "Shadow of the Night" and refers to the dramatic shadow that this elongated figure casts at twilight. Originally thought to represent a deity, recent scholarship suggests that Ombra della Sera is more likely to be a votive figure. Offered to deities in gratitude or devotion, Etruscan votive figures may represent the image of their donor. Created in a period when Etruria was influenced by the Hellenistic style, the figure presents an elongated form characteristic of local Etruscan-Italic tradition. Thus, Ombra della Sera can be interpreted as the expression of a local creative, anticlassical spirit that coexisted with Hellenistic influences and also merged with Roman formal artistic expressions. FUNERARY URNS Between the 4th and the 1st centuries B.C., Volterran workshops became famous for their elaborately carved alabaster funerary urns. The greatest and most splendid examples of this craft date to the 2nd century B.C., a time when Etruria was permeated by Hellenistic culture (which originated at the court of the successors of Alexander the Great in Asia Minor and Egypt). Ironically, this infusion led not to artistic stagnation but to the flourishing of an art uniquely Etruscan, a forebear to later Roman artistic developments. The urns display a certain Greek influence in their subject and the style of the relief sculpture on their bases. However, the Etruscans introduced modifications to their Hellenistic models that resulted in highly individualistic and indigenous artworks. Their vivid images clearly intend to be portraits of the deceased, whose ashes the urns contain. But evidence points to their not being "true" portraits, rather standardized models, superficially modified to suggest the physical identity of the deceased. In some cases, there is no correlation between the actual age of the deceased (inscribed on the urn itself) and the apparent "age" of the reproduced figure. With an influx of Greek artisans during the middle of the 2nd century B.C., late Hellenistic classicism became the style of the Volterran urns. This development is characterized by reclining figures with elongated oval faces, thick lips, wide noses, and deep-set eyes. The hairstyle of the male figures is simple, marked by a few strands on the forehead and adorned with a diadem. The predecessor for this representation is found in the portraits of the princes of Pergamum. THE TOMB OF THE WARRIOR On June 12, 1996, at Poggio alle Croci, a low hillsite on the southeast side of Volterra, Italy, an ancient warrior's tomb was accidentally uncovered. An important find? Yes, but it was not a unique event. Poggio alle Croci has been the site of other historically significant Etruscan and Roman finds. In the first half of the 20th century, many tombs were discovered there, in an area overlooking the slope of the Ulimeto necropolis ("city of the dead"). Although only a few items were recovered from this recent site, the examination of the tomb and its treasures has enriched scholars' knowledge of Etruscan society. Scientists and archeologists established that this most recent burial site belongs to a male, identified as a warrior by the presence of the lance, javelin, and horse's bit. This warrior was certainly a knight of high social rank, as shown by his crested helmet-a magnificent symbol of Villanovan culture and the only such helmet yet to be uncovered in Volterra. Other items distinguishing him as a member of an "aristocracy" are the double flask, goblet, and patera-all bronze banquet accessories and rare luxury goods. These items have been dated to the early Iron Age (late 8th century B.C.). The type of burial is uncertain in this case but is believed to have been cremation, with the helmet serving as a lid for the urn. Apart from its unique contents and qualities, the Tomb of the Warrior has provided evidence to support some notable general conclusions. It suggests that a main burial site in Volterra like Poggio alle Croci-essentially identified as dating to the Hellenistic period-has an archaic precedent. It also confirms that this Etruscan city was formed during the Iron Age by the unification of village communities at the top of a hill (an obvious defensive strategy). In addition, the homogenous quality of the burial furnishings-as compared with burial sites in other parts of Etruria-strengthens the notion that there was cultural and commercial exchange between the north and the south in the latter part of the early Iron Age. In fact, the crested helmet in this exhibition is thought to have been imported from Tarquinia, one of the largest cities of southern Etruria. Sidney Mishkin Gallery / Baruch College October 1998